Brazils progress in protecting, promoting and supporting breastfeeding from the perspective of the global breastfeeding collective / Progressos do brasil na proteção, promoção e apoio do aleitamento materno sob a perspectiva do global breastfeeding collective

ABSTRACT Objective: To identify and to discuss the progress of actions for the protection, promotion and support of breastfeeding in Brazil from the perspective of the indicators proposed by the Global Breastfeeding Collective. Data source: A narrative review was conducted according to the methodological orientation of the implementation research and through a qualitative approach. Publications from the World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund were selected, as well as publications from the Brazilian Ministry of Health were collected from the Virtual Health Library and from the libraries of the Department of Primary Care's portal and the Brazilian's Institute of Geography and Research. Data synthesis: Brazil has shown promising results regarding the implementation of breastfeeding protection legislation, the participation of municipalities in community breastfeeding support programs, and the continued evaluation of these programs. However, reports of breastfeeding rates have not been produced every five years and the progress of these indicators is very far from the agreed targets for 2030. There is also a need to improve the number of births in child-friendly hospitals and financial donations for breastfeeding programs. Conclusions: It is necessary to strengthen systematic monitoring of breastfeeding and following up current strategies to more effectively impact the breastfeeding rates in the country. Furthermore, it is suggested that the practice of donations is a pathway to be explored to support breastfeeding programs.

RESUMO Objetivo: Identificar e discutir o progresso das ações para a proteção e a promoção do aleitamento materno no Brasil, bem como o apoio a ele, sob a perspectiva dos indicadores propostos pelo Global Breastfeeding Collective. Fontes de dados: Foi realizada uma revisão narrativa de acordo com a orientação metodológica da pesquisa de implementação e por meio de uma abordagem qualitativa. Foram selecionadas publicações da Organização Mundial da Saúde e do Fundo das Nações Unidas para a Infância e também publicações do Ministério da Saúde do Brasil coletadas na Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde e nas bibliotecas do portal do Departamento da Atenção Básica e do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Síntese dos dados: O Brasil tem apresentado resultados promissores com relação à implementação da legislação para proteção do aleitamento materno e à participação dos municípios nos programas comunitários de apoio ao aleitamento materno e na avaliação continuada desses programas, contudo os relatórios das taxas de aleitamento materno não têm sido produzidos a cada cinco anos, e o progresso desses indicadores está muito distante das metas pactuadas para 2030. Também há necessidade de melhoria no número de nascimentos em hospitais amigo da criança e das doações financeiras para os programas em prol da amamentação. Conclusões: É necessário o fortalecimento do monitoramento sistemático do aleitamento materno e do acompanhamento das estratégias atuais para que impactem de maneira mais efetiva nas taxas de amamentação no país. Ademais, sugere-se que a prática de doações é um caminho a ser explorado para o apoio dos programas de amamentação.

Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar como promotor de Sistemas Alimentares Locais, Saudáveis e Sustentáveis: uma avaliação da execução financeira / Brazilian National School Food Program as a promoter of local, healthy and sustainable food systems: evaluating the financial implementation

Resumo O objetivo foi analisar o investimento financeiro para a aquisição de alimentos destinados à alimentação escolar em um município no Sul do Brasil. As licitações, as chamadas públicas e a prestação de contas do PNAE foram analisadas por meio das variáveis: I) valores de complementação financeira do município; II) percentual de recursos destinado à compra de alimentos da Agricultura Familiar (AF) e aos alimentos Recomendados, Restritos, Proibidos e outros. Comparação de proporções foi o teste utilizado para identificar diferenças entre investimentos. A complementação financeira do município denotou 65% do total. O valor total empregado para a aquisição de alimentos foi: 65,5% Recomendados, 27,9% Restritos, 6,5% Outros e 0% Proibidos. Os gastos com alimentos Recomendados foram maiores (p < 0,001) do que com os demais grupos. A AF forneceu exclusivamente alimentos Recomendados, representando 12,1% do investimento total (municipal e federal) e 29,5% dos recursos federais. A compra direta da AF contribuiu para aquisição de alimentos Recomendados. A complementação financeira do município não foi direcionada à AF, podendo comprometer o potencial do programa de alimentação escolar na promoção de sistemas agroalimentares sustentáveis, saudáveis e locais.

Abstract This study aimed to analyze the financial investment used for the procurement of food for the Brazilian National School Food Program (PNAE) in a city in the South of Brazil. The bidding process, the public calls and accountability reports of the PNAE were analyzed in the following variables: I) municipal financial complementation values; II) percentage of resources used to purchase foods from Family Farmer (FF), and Recommended, Restricted, Prohibited and others foods. The comparison of proportions was employed as a test to identify differences between investments. The municipal financial complementation was 65% of the total. The total amount used to purchase foods was distributed as follows: 65.5% for the Recommended, 27.9% for the Restricted, 6.5% for the Other and 0% for the Prohibited. The expenditure on Recommended foods was higher (p < 0.001) compared to the remaining groups. FF provided only Recommended foods, representing 12.1% of total (municipality and federal) expenditure and 29.5% of total federal funds. The direct purchase from FF contributed to the purchase of recommended foods. The municipal financial complementation was not geared to FA, which can compromise the potential of the school food program to promote healthy and sustainable food systems.

Invirtiendo en salud: el argumento económico. Informe del Foro sobre Inversión en Salud de la Cumbre Mundial sobre Innovación para la Salud 2016 / Investing in health: the economic case. Report of the WISH Investing in Health Forum 2016

Resumen: Los gobiernos de los países en desarrollo y los organismos de ayuda internacional enfrentan decisiones difíciles en cuanto a la mejor manera de asignar sus recursos limitados. Las inversiones en distintos sectores -incluyendo educación, agua y saneamiento, transporte y salud- pueden generar beneficios sociales y económicos. Este informe se enfoca específicamente en el sector salud. Presenta evidencia contundente sobre el valor de ampliar las inversiones en salud. El argumento económico para incrementar estas inversiones en salud nunca ha sido más sólido. Con el progreso que se ha logrado en la reducción de la mortalidad materna e infantil y de las muertes por enfermedades infecciosas, es esencial que los responsables de la formulación de políticas no se vuelvan complacientes. Estos logros se revertirán rápidamente sin inversiones sostenidas en salud. Será necesario ampliar las inversiones para hacer frente a la carga generada por las enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT) emergentes y para alcanzar la cobertura universal de salud (CUS). El valor de la inversión en salud va mucho más allá de su rendimiento reflejado en la prosperidad económica a través del producto interno bruto (PIB). Las personas dan un gran valor monetario a los años de vida adicionales que las inversiones en salud pueden proporcionar -un valor inherente a permanecer con vida por más tiempo, que no tiene que ver con la productividad. Los encargados del diseño de políticas deben esforzarse más para asegurar que el gasto en salud refleje las prioridades de la gente. Para asegurar que los servicios sean accesibles para todos, la función del gobierno en el financiamiento de la salud es muy clara. Sin financiamiento público, habrá quienes no podrán costear los servicios que requieren y se verán forzados a elegir la enfermedad -o incluso la muerte- y la ruina económica, una elección devastadora que ya está llevando a 150 millones de personas a la pobreza cada año. En países de bajos ingresos (PBI) y países de ingresos medios (PIM), el financiamiento público debería ser utilizado para alcanzar la cobertura universal con un paquete de intervenciones altamente costo-efectivas (mejores inversiones u opciones). Los gobiernos que no protejan la salud y el patrimonio de su pueblo de esta manera serán incapaces de obtener los beneficios de una prosperidad económica y un crecimiento a largo plazo. El financiamiento público tiene el beneficio de ser más eficiente y capaz de controlar los costos que el financiamiento privado, y es la única manera sostenible de lograr una CUS. Además, la gente atribuye un alto valor económico a la protección que le provee el financiamiento público contra los riesgos financieros. Este informe aborda tres preguntas clave: 1) ¿Cuál es el fundamento económico para invertir en salud?; 2) ¿cuál es la mejor manera de financiar la salud?, y 3) ¿cuáles son las intervenciones que deben tener prioridad?

Abstract: Developing country governments and aid agencies face difficult decisions on how best to allocate their finite resources. Investments in many different sectors -including education, water and sanitation, transportation, and health- can all reap social and economic benefits. This report focuses specifically on the health sector. It presents compelling evidence of the value of scaling-up health investments. The economic case for increasing these investments in health has never been stronger. Having made progress in reducing maternal and child mortality, and deaths from infectious diseases, it is essential that policymakers do not become complacent. These gains will be quickly reversed without sustained health investments. Scaled-up investments will be needed to tackle the emerging non-communicable disease (NCD) burden and to achieve universal health coverage (UHC). The value of investment in health far beyond its performance is reflected in economic prosperity through gross domestic product (GDP). People put a high monetary value on the additional years of life that health investments can bring -an inherent value to being alive for longer, unrelated to productivity. Policymakers need to do more to ensure that spending on health reflects people's priorities. To make sure services are accessible to all, governments have a clear role to play in financing health. Without public financing, there will be some who cannot afford the care they need, and they will be forced to choose sickness -perhaps even death- and financial ruin; a devastating choice that already pushes 150 million people into poverty every year. In low-income countries (LICs) and middle-income countries (MICs), public financing should be used to achieve universal coverage with a package of highly cost-effective interventions ('best buys'). Governments failing to protect the health and wealth of their people in this way will be unable to reap the benefits of long-term economic prosperity and growth. Public financing has the benefit of being more efficient and better at controlling costs than private financing and is the only sustainable way to reach UHC. In addition, people put a high economic value on the protection against financial risk that public financing provides. This report addresses three key questions: 1) What is the economic rationale for investing in health?; 2) what is the best way to finance health?, and 3) which interventions should be prioritized?

Economic burden of obesity: a systematic literature review

Background: The rising prevalence of obesity represents an important public health issue. An assessment of its costs may be useful in providing recommendations for policy and decision makers. This systematic review aimed to assess the economic burden of obesity and to identify, measure and describe the different obesity-related diseases included in the selected studies. Methods: A systematic literature search of studies in the English language was carried out in Medline (PubMed) and Web of Science databases to select cost-of-illness studies calculating the cost of obesity in a study population aged ≥18 years with obesity, as defined by a body mass index of ≥30 kg/m², for the whole selected country. The time frame for the analysis was January 2011 to September 2016. Results: The included twenty three studies reported a substantial economic burden of obesity in both developed and developing countries. There was considerable heterogeneity in methodological approaches, target populations, study time frames, and perspectives. This prevents an informative comparison between most of the studies. Specifically, there was great variety in the included obesity-related diseases and complications among the studies. Conclusions: There is an urgent need for public health measures to prevent obesity in order to save societal resources. Moreover, international consensus is required on standardized methods to calculate the cost of obesity to improve homogeneity and comparability. This aspect should also be considered when including obesity-related diseases.(AU)

Integrated morbidity management for lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis, Ethiopia

Problem Lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis are the major causes of tropical lymphoedema in Ethiopia. The diseases require a similar provision of care, but until recently the Ethiopian health system did not integrate the morbidity management. Approach To establish health-care services for integrated lymphoedema morbidity management, the health ministry and partners used existing governmental structures. Integrated disease mapping was done in 659 out of the 817 districts, to identify endemic districts. To inform resource allocation, trained health extension workers carried out integrated disease burden assessments in 56 districts with a high clinical burden. To ensure standard provision of care, the health ministry developed an integrated lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis morbidity management guideline, containing a treatment algorithm and a defined package of care. Experienced professionals on lymphoedema management trained government-employed health workers on integrated morbidity management. To monitor the integration, an indicator on the number of lymphoedema-treated patients was included in the national health management information system.Local setting In 2014, only 24% (87) of the 363 health facilities surveyed provided lymphatic filariasis services, while 12% (44) provided podoconiosis services.Relevant changes To date, 542 health workers from 53 health centres in 24 districts have been trained on integrated morbidity management. Between July 2013 and June 2016, the national health management information system has recorded 46 487 treated patients from 189 districts.Lessons learnt In Ethiopia, an integrated approach for lymphatic filariasis and podoconiosis morbidity management was feasible. The processes used could be applicable in other settings where these diseases are co-endemic

Barreras y facilitadores para actividad física durante el embarazo y posparto en mujeres pobres de México / Barriers and facilitators for physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum in women living in poverty of Mexico

Objetivo. Explorar percepciones de proveedores de salud y beneficiarías del Programa Oportunidades sobre la práctica de actividad física durante el embarazo y posparto, e identificar características de la consejería sobre el tema en el primer nivel de atención en salud. Material y métodos. Estudio de métodos mixtos que forma parte de una intervención en nutrición del Programa Oportunidades. La información cualitativa se colectó por entrevista (50 mujeres; 34 proveedores de salud) y se obtuvo información cuantitativa a partir de un cuestionario (n=88 mujeres; n=64 proveedores; n=111 observaciones de consulta). Resultados. Se documentaron barreras a) individuales: falta de tiempo y de apoyo social; b) socioculturales: prejuicios de pares y familiares, y falta de instructores, y c) ambientales: falta de espacios físicos seguros y apropiados. 38% de las mujeres reporta haber recibido consejería sobre el tema versus 63.4% de proveedores que reportan haberla dado (p=0.002). Conclusiones. Urgen capacitación a proveedores y promoción de la actividad física que eliminen los prejuicios asociados al tema durante el embarazo y posparto.

Objective.To explore perceptions of healthcare providers and beneficiaries of Oportunidades program on physical activity during pregnancy and post-partum; and identify current reported practices related to counseling on physical activity in the primary healthcare services in Mexico. Materials and methods. A mixed methods approach was used which is part of a nutrition intervention of the Oportunidades program. Qualitative information was collected through interviews (50=women; 34=providers) and quantitative information was collected by questionnaires (n=88 women; n=64 provider; n=111 observations during consultation). Results. The main barriers were: a) individual (lack of time and social support to childcare); b) sociocultural (gender bias derived from peer groups or family and lack of instructors), and c) environmental (lack of safe and adequate physical places). Only 38% of beneficiary women reported having been counseled on physical activity vs 63.4% of providers who reported having counseled on physical activity (p=0.002). Conclusion. There is a need to train healthcare providers and to promote physical activity during pregnancy and post-partum for reducing associated biases.

Efficacy of Team-Based Financial Incentives for Smoking Cessation in the Workplace

Worksite smoking cessation programs offer accessibility of the target population, availability of occupational health support, and the potential for peer pressure and peer support. The purpose of this study was to identify the efficacy of the financial incentives given to various teams in the workplace. St. Paul's Hospital's employees were enrolled. Each team of employees consisted of smoking participants and non-smoking fellow workers from the same department. The financial incentive of 50000 won (about $45) was rewarded to the team for each successful participant-not to individual members-after the first week and then after one month. If the smokers in the team remained abstinent for a longer time period, the team was given an incentive of 100000 won for each successful participant after 3 and 6 months. A total 28 smoking participants and 6 teams were enrolled. Self-reported abstinence rates validated by urinary cotinine test at 3, 6, and 12 months after the initial cessation were 61%, 54%, and 50%, respectively. Smokers with high nicotine dependence scores or those who began participation 1 month after enrollment initiation had a lower abstinence rate at 3 months, but not at 6 and 12 months. Participants who succeeded at smoking cessation at 12 months were more likely to be older and have a longer smoking duration history. The financial incentives given to teams could be promising and effective to improve long-term rates of smoking cessation. This approach could use peer pressure and peer support in the workplace over a longer period.

A implementação das prioridades da Política Nacional de Promoção da Saúde, um balanço, 2006 a 2014 / The implementation of the priorities of the National Health Promotion Policy, an assessment, 2006-2014

O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a Política Nacional de Promoção da Saúde (PNPS) quanto à implementação de eixos prioritários de gestão. Foram consultadas informações contidas em portarias, documentos institucionais, sites, livros e artigos publicados visando analisar as ações implementadas. Houve avanços na gestão como a criação de linha orçamentária específica, a inserção da promoção no Plano Plurianual, monitoramento de indicadores da Promoção da Saúde nos pactos federativos, o financiamento de projetos de Promoção da Saúde em municípios e a criação de programas de Promoção da Saúde. Foram realizadas avaliações de programas de atividade física que apontaram a efetividade dos programas. Ações intersetoriais implementadas foram relevantes, em especial a articulação com os setores de Educação, Justiça, Cidades, Direitos Humanos, Desenvolvimento Social, Esporte e Lazer, dentre outros. Ações regulatórias foram implementadas, como a Lei "Seca" e a lei de ambientes livres de tabaco. Foram observados avanços e pontuamos o fortalecimento da Promoção da Saúde na agenda do setor saúde, aprofundamento nas parcerias e nas ações intersetoriais, a identificação das iniquidades no território visando sua redução, bem como a sustentabilidade das ações de Promoção da Saúde.

The scope of this article is to analyze the National Health Promotion Policy with respect to the implementation of core management priorities. Information contained in institutional documents, websites, books and published articles was consulted in order to analyze the actions implemented. There were advances in management, such as the creation of a specific budget line, insertion of the promotion in the Multi-Year Plan, monitoring of indicators of health promotion in the federal pacts, financing of health promotion projects in municipalities and the creation of health promotion programs. Evaluation of physical activity programs was conducted that revealed the effectiveness of the programs. Intersectorial actions taken were relevant, in particular coordination with the Education, Justice, Cities, Human Rights, Social Development, Sports and Leisure sectors, among others. Regulatory actions have been implemented such as the Drink and Drive ban and no smoking environments. Advances were observed, especially greater emphasis on health promotion in the health sector agenda as well as partnerships as intersectorial actions, identifying inequities in the area seeking reduction thereof, in addition to the sustainability of health promotion actions.

Avaliação econômica de tecnologias sociais aplicadas à promoção de saúde: abastecimento de água por sistema Sodis em comunidades ribeirinhas da Amazônia / Economic evaluation of social technologies applied to health promotion: water supply by the SODIS System in riverside communities of the Brazilian Amazon

As chamadas tecnologias sociais vêm sendo largamente usadas em muitos lugares do mundo como alternativa viável para que populações de baixa renda tenham acesso a oportunidades de ocupação e renda e outros aspectos relacionados à qualidade de vida, inclusive o saneamento básico. O presente trabalho realiza uma avaliação custo-benefício do uso de uma tecnologia de baixo custo para abastecimento de água potável utilizada em vários países, o sistema SODIS. O estudo foi realizado em comunidades ribeirinhas que vivem na área insular do município de Belém (PA), localizado na Amazônia brasileira. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de questionários respondidos por famílias moradoras de três ilhas: Jutuba, Nova e Urubuoca. Os resultados mostraram-se positivos, considerando a análise de custo-benefício do projeto, o que comprova a viabilidade econômica do uso do sistema SODIS na situação investigada.

The so-called social technologies have been widely used in many places around the world as a viable alternative for low-income populations to gain access to opportunities for employment and income and other aspects related to quality of life, including basic sanitation. This paper conducts a cost-benefit analysis of using a low cost technology for drinking water used in several countries, namely the SODIS system. The study was conducted in riverside communities living in the island area of Belem municipality, located in the Brazilian Amazon. Data were collected through questionnaires answered by families living on three islands: Jutuba, Nova and Urubuoca. The results were positive, considering the cost-benefit analysis of the project, which demonstrates the economic viability of using the SODIS system in the situation investigated.

Relación costo-utilidad de la disminución del consumo de sal y su efecto en la incidencia de enfermedades cardiovasculares en Argentina / The cost-utility ratio of reducing salt intake and its impact on the incidence of cardiovascular disease in Argentina

Objetivo. Estimar la relación costo-utilidad de una intervención dirigida a reducir el consumo de sal en la dieta de personas mayores de 35 años en Argentina. Métodos. La intervención consistió en reducir entre 5% y 25% el contenido de sal en los alimentos. Se utilizó el modelo de simulación del impacto de las políticas sobre la enfermedad coronaria para predecir la evolución de la incidencia, la prevalencia, la mortalidad y los costos en la población de la enfermedad coronaria y cerebrovascular en personas de 35 a 84 años. Se modeló el efecto y los costos de una disminución de 3 g de sal en la dieta, mediante su reducción en alimentos procesados y en la añadida por los consumidores, por un período de 10 años. Se estimó el cambio en la ocurrencia de eventos en este período y la ganancia en años de vida ajustados por la calidad (AVAC) en un escenario de efecto alto y otro de efecto bajo. Resultados. La intervención generó un ahorro neto de US$ 3 765 millones y una ganancia de 656 657 AVAC en el escenario de efecto alto y de US$ 2 080 millones y 401 659 AVAC en el escenario de efecto bajo. Se obtendrían reducciones en la incidencia de enfermedad coronaria (24,1%), infarto agudo de miocardio (21,6%) y accidente cerebrovascular (20,5%), y en la mortalidad por enfermedad coronaria (19,9%) y por todas las causas (6,4%). Se observaron beneficios para todos los grupos de edad y sexo. Conclusiones. La implementación de esta estrategia de reducción del consumo de sal produciría un efecto sanitario muy positivo, tanto en AVAC ganados como en recursos económicos ahorrados.

Objective. Estimate the cost-utility ratio of an intervention to reduce dietary salt intake in people over the age of 35 in Argentina. Methods. The intervention consisted of reducing salt content in food by 5% to 25%. A simulation model was used to measure the impact of policies on heart disease in order to predict incidence, prevalence, mortality, and cost trends for heart and cerebrovascular disease in the population aged 35–84. The intervention modeled the impact and costs of a 3-gram reduction in dietary salt intake by reducing the amount of salt in processed food and salt added to food by the participants themselves over a 10-year period. Changes in event occurrence during this period and gains in quality-adjusted life years (QALY) were estimated in high- and low-impact scenarios. Results. The intervention generated a net savings of US$ 3 765 million and a gain of 656 657 QALYs in the high-impact scenario and a savings of US$ 2 080 million and 401 659 QALY in the low-impact scenario. The result would be reductions in the incidence of heart disease (24.1%), acute myocardial infarction (21.6%), and stroke (20.5%), as well as in mortality from heart disease (19.9%) and all causes (6.4%). Benefits were observed for all age groups and both genders. Conclusions. Implementing this strategy to reduce salt intake would produce a very positive health impact, both in QALY gains and savings in economic resources.

Impacto de las advertencias con pictogramas en las cajetillas de cigarrillos en México: resultados de una encuesta en fumadores de Guadalajara / Impact of cigarette package health warnings with pictures in Mexico: results from a survey of smokers in Guadalajara

OBJETIVO: Mostrar el efecto de las primeras advertencias sanitarias (AS) con pictogramas en México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Encuesta transversal en una muestra representativa de 1 765 adultos fumadores de Guadalajara, México (2010). Se estimaron modelos logísticos para determinar la asociación entre el reconocimiento de las AS con pictogramas y las variables que indican el impacto de las mismas. RESULTADOS: 58% de la población indicó haber comprado una cajetilla con AS con pictogramas. Estos fumadores expuestos reportaron pensar con mayor frecuencia en los daños que causa fumar (34 contra 25% p=0.003) y pensar en dejar de fumar (23 contra 14% p=0.001). Se observó una mayor aceptación de las AS como medio para comunicar información importante al fumador (93 contra 87% p<0.001) así como mayor aceptación de que el gobierno comunica bien sobre los daños a la salud por fumar (68 contra 55% p<0.001). CONCLUSIÓN: Las AS con pictogramas han logrado aumentar el conocimiento sobre los daños que provoca el tabaco. La recomendación es seguir desarrollando y mejorando esta intervención para coadyuvar a lograr una población informada de los riesgos del tabaco.

OBJETIVE: Evaluate the impact of the first pictorial health warning labels (HWLs) on cigarette packs in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cross-sectional survey of a representative sample of 1 765 adult smokers from Guadalajara, Mexico, 2010. Logistic regression models were estimated to determine the association between recall of having purchased a pack with a pictorial HWL and psychosocial variables indicating their impact. RESULTS: 58% reported having purchased a pack with one of the pictorial HWLs, and these were considered the exposed population. Exposed smokers reported a greater frequency of thinking about smoking-related risks (34 vs. 25% p=0.003), and thinking about quitting smoking (23 vs. 14% p=0.001). Exposure to pictorial HWLs was also associated with a greater acceptability of HWLs as a means of communicating with smokers (93 vs. 87% p<0.001), as was the perception that the government communicates well about tobacco-related health risks (68 vs. 55% p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Pictorial HWLs have made smokers think more about these risks and about quitting smoking. This policy should continue to be exploited as a cost-effective educational intervention.

Aproximación a la construcción teórica de la promoción de la salud / An approach to the theoretical construction of healthcare promotion

Se examinan las definiciones de promoción de la salud desde la teoría del conocimiento, en sus aspectos ontológicos y epistemológicos como son considerados por diversos paradigmas. Se utiliza una periodización en tres fases En la fase de antecedentes (1920-1973) se producen los primeros distanciamientos frente al paradigma positivista y la promoción de la salud hace parte de las definiciones de salud pública. En la fase fundacional (1974-1986) la promoción de la salud adquiere identidad propia y se transforma en políticas explícitas, en medio de escenarios de confluencia de paradigmas. En la fase de consolidación (1987-2008), se articulan ampliamente los paradigmas positivistas y no positivistas, extendiéndose a los aspectos metodológicos.

Definitions of healthcare promotion were examined from the theory of knowledge regarding its ontological and epistemological aspects as considered by several paradigms. Three-phase periodisation was used. The first distancing regarding the positivist paradigm and healthcare promotion through definitions of public health was made during the background phase (1920-1973). The promotion of healthcare acquired its own identity and became explicit policy in the midst of scenarios involving the confluence of paradigms during the foundational phase (1974-1986). Positivist and non-positivist paradigms became broadly articulated during the consolidation phase (1987-2008), becoming extended to methodological aspects.

El financiamiento internacional para la cooperación al desarrollo de la salud de América Latina y el Caribe / International financing for cooperation to develop health in Latin America and the Caribbean

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivos a) conocer en qué medida América Latina y el Caribe (ALC) se vio beneficiada por los aumentos de la asistencia internacional para el desarrollo de la salud (ADS) a nivel mundial y si la tendencia observada después de la Cumbre del Milenio, también fue una tendencia observada en la Región, b) determinar si existen diferencias en la distribución de esta asistencia, según el ingreso bruto per cápita de los países, c) identificar el posible efecto de la crisis financiera internacional de 2008 en la ayuda oficial bilateral y d) comparar las tendencias que tuvo el gasto público salud con respecto a la ADS antes y después de la Cumbre del Milenio Se encontró que la ADS en ALC sigue un curso muy diferente al de otras regiones del mundo. A partir de 1997 se entra en un período de estancamiento fluctuante que se extiende hasta 2008, con desembolsos promedios anuales de US$ 1 200 millones. La banca multilateral tuvo una participación de 79 por ciento de los desembolsos promedios entre 2002 y 2008 en los países de ingreso medio alto, mientras que la ayuda oficial bilateral registró la mayor participación (61 por ciento) en los países de ingresos medios bajos y bajos. En este período la ayuda bilateral tiene un crecimiento anual de 13 por ciento, pero en el año posterior a la crisis los desembolsos caen en US$ 20 millones. El 64 por ciento de la ayuda bilateral provino de Estados Unidos, España y Canadá, y el 29 por ciento de la misma se destinó a VIH/Sida y enfermedades de transmisión sexual. Después de la Cumbre del Milenio la ADS canalizada hacia los gobiernos disminuyó en un 30 por ciento entre 2001-2006 y su participación con respecto al gasto público en salud regional fue de 0,30 por ciento en el mismo período, con una proporción igualmente marginal con respecto al gasto total en salud para 2008 (0,37 por ciento; US$ 2 per cápita). Se concluye que después de la Cumbre del Milenio la ADS en ALC no creció ni logró igualar las tendencias antes del 2000 y el gasto público en salud siguió su tendencia de crecimiento histórico, sin mayores incrementos con respecto al producto interno bruto regional. Frente a este panorama y por ser ALC la región más desigual pero no la más pobre del mundo, resulta imperativo replantearse las formas de pensar, conducir y entregar la cooperación para el desarrollo de la salud con enfoques innovadores y mecanismos alternativos de financiamiento que respondan más y mejor a las realidades de la región.

The purpose of this study is (a) to examine the ways in which Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have benefited from increases in international development assistance for health (DAH) at the global level and whether the trend observed after the Millennium Summit has also applied to the Region; (b) to determine whether there are differences in the distribution of this assistance, based on the gross per capita income of each country; (c) to identify the possible effects of the 2008 international financial crisis on official bilateral assistance; and (d) to compare trends in public health expenditure in relation to DAH before and after the Millennium Summit. The study has found that DAH in LAC follows a very different pattern than in other regions of the world. The period from 1997 to 2008 was one of fluctuating stagnation, with average annual disbursements of US$ 1 200 million. Multilateral financial institutions accounted for 79 percent of the average disbursements in the upper-middle income countries between 2002 and 2008, while official bilateral assistance held the greatest share (61 percent) in the low- and lower-middle income countries. Bilateral assistance grew at an annual rate of 13 percent during this period, but in the year after the crisis, disbursements fell to US$ 20 million. Sixty-four percent of bilateral assistance came from the United States, Spain, and Canada, with 29 percent of it being directed to HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. After the Millennium Summit DAH channeled to governments decreased 30 percent in the period 2001-2006, and its share of public health expenditure in the region was 0.3 percent for the same period, with an equally marginal proportion in relation to total health expenditure for 2008 (0.37 percent; US$ 2 per capita). The study concludes that after the Millennium Summit, DAH in LAC did not grow nor did it equal the trends prior to 2000, and public health expenditure followed its historical growth trend, without further increases in relation to the regional gross domestic product. Given these realities and the fact that LAC is the world's most unequal region, but not its poorest, it is imperative to reconsider the concepts, management, and delivery of cooperation in the development of health, using innovative approaches and alternative financing mechanisms that respond more effectively to the realities of the region.

Factors Influencing Yangsaeng in Elders (Yangsaeng; Traditional Oriental Health Promotion)

PURPOSE: The study was done to identify factors influencing Yangsaeng in elders. METHODS: Data were collected by questionnaires from 907 elders in D metropolitan city. Measures were Yangsaeng, perceived health status, self-efficacy, and self esteem. Data were analyzed using frequencies, means and standard deviation, t-test, one-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation coefficients, and stepwise multiple regression with SPSS/WIN 13.0 version. RESULTS: The mean score for Yangsaeng the participants was 3.56, out of a possible 5. There were significant differences in Yangsaeng according to age, education level, monthly income, marital status, family structure, and periodic health examination. Yangsaeng correlated positively with perceived health status, self-efficacy and self-esteem. According to the research, factors influencing Yangseng in elders were self-esteem, perceived health status, self-efficacy, family structure, and marital status. CONCLUSION: The positive correlation between Yangsaeng and health promotion behavior and perceived health status, self-efficacy, and self-esteem identified in this study can have an impact on strategies to improve the health of Korean elders. Therefore, the results can be used as a reference for future studies.

A percepção dos usuários sobre a oferta de programas de promoção da saúde e prevenção de doenças: o caso de uma operadora de autogestão / The users' perception of a health promotion and prevention program offer: a self-management operator case

A coexistência do setor público e privado de saúde no Brasil é antiga e os arranjos percorridos têm contribuído para a construção de um sistema fragmentado e complexo. Na busca por estabelecer políticas setoriais em harmonia com o Sistema Único de Saúde, a Agência Nacional de Saúde Suplementar tem estimulado o desenvolvimento de programas de promoção da saúde e prevenção de doenças no setor. Essas ações são consideradas como um conjunto heterogêneo de estratégias na consolidação de políticas que visem à saúde da população. Este é um estudo de caráter qualitativo que objetiva analisar esses programas em uma operadora de autogestão, com o intuito de compreender se eles produzem dispositivos biopolíticos. Foram coletados os discursos dos usuários dos programas por meio de um roteiro semiestruturado e utilizou-se a técnica de análise de conteúdo. Os resultados mostram que se encontram em curso alguns processos de reestruturação da produção do cuidado, e os aspectos relacionais têm sido priorizados nesses programas. Essas ações configuram-se em dispositivos biopolíticos conduzindo formas de viver. É importante a existência de equilíbrio entre as práticas desses poderes e a produção de liberdade, atentando para que não haja intervenções biopolíticas arbitrárias e autoritárias na produção das ações de saúde.

The coexistence of public and private health care systems in Brazil is old and their arrangements have contributed to the construction of a fragmented system. In seeking to establish policies in agreement with the Brazilian Unifed Health System, the National Agency of Supplemental Health insurance has encouraged the development of programs for health promotion and disease prevention on the private sector. These actions are a heterogeneous set of strategies to consolidate policies aiming at the population's health. This is a qualitative study that analyzes these preventive programs in a private health insurance agency, to understand whether they produce bio-political devices. Speeches were collected from users of the programs through a semi-structured script using the technique of content analysis. The results show that some restructuring processes of care production are ongoing, and relational aspects have been targeted in these programs. These actions are configured in devices leading biopolitical forms of life. It is important to have balance between these powers and the production practices of freedom, noting that there is no arbitrary and authoritarian biopolitical interventions in the production of health actions.

Iniciativas de salud en Latinoamérica: de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana a la Iniciativa Mesoamericana de Salud Pública / Health Initiatives in Latin America: a historical assessment from the inception of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau to the Mesoamerican Health Initiative

Históricamente, la salud pública en Latinoamérica ha atravesado por diferentes etapas influidas por eventos regionales o globales, por instituciones públicas como la Organización Panamericana de la Salud, o por iniciativas de fundaciones filantrópicas u organizaciones internacionales bilaterales o multinacionales. Estas diferentes iniciativas han resultado en mejoras significativas en la salud pública en las diferentes regiones de América Latina. En general, ha habido un aumento en los índices de desarrollo humano y en la salud; sin embargo, estos éxitos no son compartidos por todos en América Latina. En la región Mesoamericana, que abarca desde el sur de México hasta Panamá, ha existido una transición epidemiológica inversa a pesar de esfuerzos regionales y nacionales. El determinante fundamental es la inequidad social prevalente en Mesoamérica y su focalización en poblaciones indígenas y en aquellas de origen afroamericano que viven en zonas urbanas, periurbanas y rurales. La Iniciativa Mesoamericana de Salud Pública (IMSP) es una asociación público-privada que pretende cambiar el rumbo de la salud pública de las poblaciones más desprotegidas y, de esta forma, promover acciones que contribuyan a mejorar las desigualdades de salud y cumplir con los objetivos del milenio en la región.

Latin America has undergone gradual transformations in public health influenced by historical events locally or at a global level. These epidemiologic transitions have also occurred through the implementation of interventions by public institutions such as the Pan-American Health Organization, by philanthropic foundations, non-governmental organizations, and bilateral or multilateral international donor organizations. These public health initiatives have produced substantial improvements in the heath status of many populations in Latin America. Overall, human development and health have advanced over the past century. However, these public health benefits have not been shared equally among all areas of Latin America. The Mesoamerican Region -the area encompassing from Southern Mexico to Panama- continues to experience profound social inequities focalized to indigenous communities and groups of African-descent living in urban, periurban, or rural areas. The Mesoamerican Health Initiative is a private-public partnership that attempts to close the gap of health inequalities affecting the most vulnerable populations in this region of Latin America.

Avances en los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio 4 y 5 en Mesoamérica / Progress on the Millenium Development Goals 4 and 5 in Mesoamerica

OBJETIVOS: Presentar los avances realizados en la región mesoamericana en relación con los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio 4 y 5 por medio de su análisis y discutir las intervenciones más relevantes para ayudar en el logro de estos objetivos o, por lo menos, en mantener su trayectoria. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se utilizaron como fuentes las estimaciones de 1990-2008 sobre mortalidad en menores de cinco años y materna, las coberturas de vacunación contra difteria, tétanos y tosferina (DTP), atención prenatal y atención del parto por personal calificado, realizadas por el Instituto de la Métrica y Evaluación en Salud y las causas de mortalidad en menores de cinco años, realizadas por el Grupo de Referencia sobre Epidemiología y Salud en la Infancia de la OMS (CHERG). RESULTADOS: La tendencia de la tasa de mortalidad de menores de cinco años (ODM-4) muestra una reducción anual de 4.2% en los últimos 18 años, comparada con la reducción global de 2.1%. En contraste, la tasa de descenso de la mortalidad materna (ODM-5) es muy heterogénea y ninguno de los países de la región alcanzará este objetivo. CONCLUSIÓN: Los esfuerzos realizados por los países en Mesoamérica han sido sustantivos en la reducción de mortalidad en menores de cinco años; sin embargo no han sido suficientes para alcanzar la meta programada por el ODM-5. Aunque la tendencia es correcta, el ritmo de descenso cumplirá parcialmente con los compromisos adquiridos para erradicar la pobreza.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the advances made by countries in the Mesoamerican region towards reaching Millenium Development Goals (MDG) 4 and 5, and discuss the most useful tasks to help the region in accomplishing or keeping track of these objectives. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The trend estimates of maternal and under 5 mortality from 1990 to 2008, the effective coverage of vaccination against diphteria, pertussis and tetanus (DPT), prenatal care and childbirth by qualified personnel were taken from the Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) and the causes of death for children under five were taken from the Children's Health Epidemiology Reference Group of WHO (CHERG). RESULTS: The regional trend in the rate of mortality for children under five (MDG-4) in the last 18 years shows an annual reduction of 4.2%, significantly above the global reduction of 2.1%. This suggests that countries of Mesoamerica will be able to fulfill this objective. In contrast, data for 2008 shows that the rate of reduction of maternal mortality is very heterogeneous and it is unlikely that any of the countries in the region will reach this goal. CONCLUSION: Efforts made by countries in Mesoamerica have been substantial in controlling mortality in children under five years but insufficient to achieve MDG-5. Although the tendency is in the right track the reduction rate will only partially fulfill the acquired commitments to eradicate poverty.

Inmunizaciones y equidad en el Plan Regional del Sistema Mesoamericano de Salud Pública / Immunization and equity in the Regional Initiative of the Mesoamerican Health Initiative

Las cifras nacionales de inmunización indican altas coberturas de vacunación en Mesoamérica, sin embargo, hay evidencia creciente de que los grupos más vulnerables no son alcanzados por los programas de vacunación. La planeación de este proyecto se llevó a cabo entre junio y diciembre de 2009. La ejecución del proyecto se llevará a cabo en la población objetivo seleccionada a partir de junio de 2011. Está integrada por niños menores de cinco años y mujeres en edad fértil de las poblaciones más vulnerables en los países de Mesoamérica, identificadas geográficamente por un bajo índice de desarrollo humano o por la alta prevalencia de pobreza en el ámbito municipal, o a través del uso de métodos participativos para definir pobreza y vulnerabilidad en contextos locales. El Grupo de Trabajo ha definido tres líneas de acción para las intervenciones de enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación, para lograr una mejor cobertura efectiva en poblaciones vulnerables: 1) estudios piloto de coberturas para vacíos de conocimiento, 2) fortalecimiento de las políticas de vacunación, 3) ejecución de prácticas basadas en evidencia. El fortalecimiento de los sistemas de salud bajo la óptica de equidad en salud es el objetivo regional central del Grupo de Trabajo en inmunizaciones enfocado en un aumento de la cobertura efectiva.

National immunization rates indicate high vaccine coverage in Mesoamerica, but there is growing evidence that the most vulnerable groups are not being reached by immunization programs. Therefore, there is likely low effective vaccine coverage in the region, leading to persistent and growing health inequity. The planning phase of this project was from June to December 2009. The project will be conducted in the target populations which includes children under five, pregnant women, and women of child-bearing age from the most vulnerable populations within countries of the Mesoamerican region, as indicated geographically by a low human development index (HDI) and/or high prevalence of poverty at the municipal level and through the use of participatory methods to define poverty and vulnerability in local contexts. We defined three lines of action for vaccine-preventable disease interventions: 1) pilot projects to fill gaps in knowledge; 2) strengthening immunization policy; and 3) implementation of evidence-based practices. Health system strengthening through health equity is the central regional objective of the immunization workgroup. We hope to have a transformational impact on health systems so as to improve effective coverage, including vaccine and other integrated primary healthcare services.